Understanding Mu’tazilism

Title: Understanding Mu’tazilism: Origins, Doctrines, and Influence

Introduction: “مقدمة” (pronounced: muqaddimah)

Mu’tazilism, an Islamic theological school, arose during a turbulent period in early Islamic history and became popular during the Abbasid Caliphate. This article explores the Mu’tazillah doctrine, including its beginnings, key teachings, political influence, and post-Mihna developments.

Origins and Principles:

• The Mu’tazilites appeared during the dispute over leadership after the death of the third caliph, Uthman. They took a neutral position between Ali and his opponents.
• Founded by Wasil ibn Ata, the Mu’tazila developed a theology based on three fundamental principles: the oneness and justice of God, human freedom of action, and the created nature of the Quran.
• Their theology was influenced by Greek philosophy, but they remained rooted in Islamic principles.

Key Doctrines:

• The Mu’tazilites rejected the orthodox Sunni belief that the Quran is uncreated and co-eternal with God, arguing that this would imply a temporal precedence of God’s speech over Himself.
• They tackled the theological problem of evil by asserting that God, being just and wise, cannot command what is contrary to reason or act with disregard for His creatures. Evil arises from human error and free will.
• While rejecting secular rationalism, the Mu’tazilites believed in the compatibility of reason and religious principles. They argued that human intelligence allows people to understand moral categories like good and evil.

Political Influence:

• The Mu’tazila reached political prominence during the Abbasid Caliphate, especially during the “mihna,” a period of religious persecution initiated by al-Ma’mun.
• Al-Ma’mun’s inquisition aimed to enforce Mu’tazilite doctrine, leading to the persecution of scholars who opposed it, including Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
• Despite persecution, Mu’tazilism remained influential in regions like Ifriqiya under the Aghlabids and during the Buyid rule in Iraq and Persia.

Post-Mihna Period:

• The policy of religious persecution was eventually reversed by al-Mutawakkil, leading to a decline in Mu’tazilite influence.
• Under subsequent caliphs like al-Mutawakkil, Mu’tazilite doctrine was repudiated, and its adherents faced persecution.
• Despite this, Mu’tazilism continued to have some influence, particularly among the elite and intellectual circles.

The Five Principles:

• According to a “leading Mu’tazilite authority” of the end of the ninth century (al-Khayyat), and “clearly enunciated for the first time by Abu al-Hudhayl”, five basic tenets make up the Mu’tazilite creed: monotheism, justice and unity, the inevitability of the threats and promises of God (or “the warning and the promise”), the intermediary position (i.e. Muslims who die without repentance after committing a grave sin are neither mu’mineen (believers), nor kuffar (non-believers), but in an intermediate position known as fasiq), the injunction of right, and the prohibition of wrong.

Monotheism:

• Chief Justice Qadi Abd al-Jabbar outlines the doctrine of Tawhīd, emphasizing God’s unique attributes that distinguish Him from all creatures.
• Tawhīd encompasses God’s eternal existence, omnipotence, omniscience, self-sufficiency, immutability, and transcendence beyond physical characteristics.
• God is not comparable to physical bodies or their attributes, and He is distinct from any material or spiritual entities.

Divine justice:

• Mu’tazilis address the existence of evil in the world by attributing it to human free will, defining evil as stemming from human error rather than God’s actions.
• They emphasize that God does not command evil deeds and that suffering beyond human actions is understood through the doctrine of taklif, where God does not burden a soul beyond its capacity.
• Life is perceived as a test of coherent and rational choices, with accountability in this life and the hereafter.

The Promise and the Threat:

• Mu’tazilis believe in irreversible divine promises and warnings, where humans are inherently inclined to submit to a higher principle.
• God’s warnings are considered conscious decisions, and He remains true to His word without deception or contradiction.
• This doctrine contrasts with the beliefs of the Murjites, who held different views on God’s promises and threats.

The Intermediate Position:

• Mu’tazilis adopt a middle ground between believers and non-believers for those who commit grave sins but die without repentance.
• Such individuals are considered in an intermediate position, not fully believers nor outright non-believers, and they face punishment in Hell, albeit to a lesser degree than disbelievers.
• This stance differs from the views of Kharijites and Murjites regarding sinners’ status in the afterlife.

The enjoining of right and prohibiting of wrong:

• Mu’tazilis emphasize the importance of using reason alongside revelation to discern right from wrong.
• While revelation guides moral decisions, reason allows Muslims to identify right and wrong in most cases independently.
• They assert that some acts require divine guidance for clarity on their moral implications, while others can be discerned through rational reflection.

Tawhid (Unity of God):

• This encompasses several dimensions:
• Al-tawhid al-dhati: Affirming the uniqueness and incomparability of the Divine Essence.
• Al-tawhid al-sifati: Asserting that Divine Attributes are inherent to God’s Essence, not distinct from it.
• Al-tawhid al-’af’ali: Acknowledging that all actions, including human deeds, exist by God’s Will.
• Al-tawhid al-’ibadi: Emphasizing exclusive worship of God, rejecting association of any other being with divinity.

Justice (‘Adl):

• Affirming God’s justice and rejection of oppression towards His creations.
• Asserting divine retribution, wherein God rewards the obedient and punishes the disobedient, with no uncertainty.
• Divine pardon is contingent upon sincere repentance; forgiveness without repentance is not viable.

Divine Retribution (At-wa’d wa al-wa’id):

• God’s predetermined rewards for the obedient and punishments for the disobedient are certain.
• Repentance is essential for divine forgiveness; pardon is not granted without genuine repentance.

Manzilah Bayna al-Manzilatayn:

• The concept of an intermediary state between belief and disbelief for those who commit major sins (fisq).
• Fisq does not equate to disbelief but signifies an intermediate state.

Al-’Amr bil Ma’ruf wa al-Nahy ‘an al-Munkar:

• Advocating enjoining good and forbidding evil as a universal obligation for Muslims.
• Emphasizing that identifying right and wrong is not solely reliant on Sharia but can be discerned by human reason.
• Implementation of this duty is not solely the responsibility of the Imam; it extends to all Muslims, with specific obligations reserved for the Islamic ruler.

Mu’tazilite Doctrines and Beliefs:

• Emphasize tawhid (unity of Divine Essence and Attributes) and justice.
• Reject unity of actions.
• Advocate for divine justice, rejecting the notion that all actions of God are just by virtue of being performed by Him.
• Strongly defend human free will and accountability for actions.
• Reject pre-eternal existence of the Qur’an, considering it as created.

The Doctrine of Divine Justice:

• Belief in inherent justice of certain actions.
• God cannot act against justice.

Free Will:

• Humans have the power to choose their actions and are accountable for them.

Acts and Attributes of God:

• Reject idea that all acts of God are just.
• Reject pre-eternal existence of the Qur’an.

Al-’amr bi al-ma’ruf wa al-nahy ‘an al-munkar:

• Believe in obligation to enjoin good and forbid evil, even if it requires armed revolt against corruption or unjust rulers.

Position on Fasiq:

• Propose a middle ground regarding faith or infidelity of those who commit major sins.

Historical Context:

• Traces historical development of Mu’tazilite thought.
• Mentions key figures and interactions with ruling authorities and theological groups.

Decline of Mu’tazilism:

• Discusses decline due to opposition from ruling authorities and Ahl al-Sunnah, leading to persecution during certain reigns.

Interpretations of Quranic Verses:

• Vary among different theological schools.
• Shia tradition reconciles apparent contradictions emphasizing God’s mercy and justice.

Use of Reason:

• Embrace reason as a tool for understanding God and moral principles.
• Human intellect is essential alongside revelation for attaining knowledge about Islam.

Hadith Scrutiny:

• Early Mu’tazilites questioned authority of certain Hadiths.
• Emphasized scrutinizing content and transmission chains for validity.

Influence of Greek Atomism:

• Influence on Mu’tazilite theology, positing God’s freedom to intervene in the world.

Views on Paradise and Hell:

• Debate on whether pre-created or awaiting Judgment Day.

Legacy and Influence:

• Legacy persists in Maghreb and influenced Islamic modernism and reformist movements.
• Term “Mu’tazilite” used derogatorily in contemporary Salafi jihadism.
• Mu’tazilism’s legacy includes contributions to Islamic theology, shaping early Islamic thought, and ongoing relevance in contemporary Islamic discourse.

Conclusion: “خاتمة” (pronounced: khatimah)

Mu’tazilism’s legacy includes contributions to Islamic theology, influence on early Islamic thinking, and later intellectual developments in the Muslim world. Despite persecution and eventual decline, Mu’tazilite beliefs remain relevant and trigger a debate in current Islamic discourse.

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